EMQ » July–September 2022 » Volume 58 Issue 3
Multilingualism
Missionaries involved in all aspects of ministry from church planting to discipleship to Bible translation must consider language in their strategies to effectively communicate the gospel. But multilingualism complicates decisions about which language(s) to use.
By Kyle Harris
When my wife and I began Bible translation work in Papua New Guinea in 1985, monolingual language groups that either spoke only their heritage language (or nearly always did) were widespread across the country. Almost forty years later, no groups exist in the country that exclusively speak their heritage language. While this shift occurred, other groups transitioned from multilingualism to monolingualism because a language of wider communication (LWC) replaced their heritage language. Finally, other groups remained multilingual, but with a different mix of languages. They lost their heritage language while gaining competency in two or more LWCs.
These transitions are not unique to Papua New Guinea. They occur across the globe as commerce, media, migration, and official language policies bring people into contact with other languages. Because of these factors, and others, multilingualism is the norm in much of the world.
Even in the United States, where nearly 80% of people speak only English in their home,[1] the number of other languages spoken as well as the number of speakers of those languages is increasing mainly due to immigration. In 2016, the Endangered Language Alliance estimated that New York City residents speak more than 800 languages. This makes the city second only to Papua New Guinea in terms of linguistic diversity.[2]
New York City residents speak more than 800 languages. This makes the city second only to Papua New Guinea in terms of linguistic diversity
We see evidence of these changes even on our own ministry team. Three US churches that partner with my wife and I in our mission work recently started outreaches and church services for immigrant communities using the national languages of those communities. This allows each of these churches to expand the scope of their ministries to serve entirely new groups of people.
Missionaries involved in all aspects of ministry from church planting to discipleship to Bible translation must consider language in their strategies to effectively communicate the gospel. But multilingualism complicates decisions about which language(s) to use. For Bible translation, multilingualism’s greatest challenge centers on which translated Scripture products in which languages are most useful in contexts where multiple languages are used.
Language Use Domains
Even though language use differs among individuals in a language community, it tends to be similar across a community. American linguist Joshua Fishman specialized in the sociology of language. He explained that variations in the way people use languages – i.e., “who speaks what language to whom and when”[3] – is not a result of chance but instead is guided by notions of proper use or by community standards. He referred to distinct social settings where people tend to use specific languages as language domains, defined as “major clusters of interaction situations that occur in particular multilingual settings.”[4]
Language domains include social settings such as home and family, friends and neighbors, the market, church, education, business, and government. Language choice may differ in each of these domains. One language may be used in the intimate domains of family, friends, and neighbors while another is used in church. Yet another may be used for interactions in business or government settings. For that reason, developing ministry strategies in multilingual contexts requires understanding the domain(s) in which those strategies will be applied.
One language may be used in the intimate domains of family, friends, and neighbors while another is used in church.
Is the Heart Language Superior?
When we speak of a person’s heart language, we are typically referring to their heritage language. This is generally the first language a person learns, and it is typically their language of communication with family, friends, and neighbors. It is usually connected to their ethnic identity and used to convey deep and meaningful ideas and express emotions.
These ideas about heart languages hold true in groups where few people develop native-speaker fluency in both their heritage language and one or more LWCs. Heritage language communication provides comprehension and impact advantages in these contexts.
However, in multilingual communities notions about a single “heart language” may no longer apply. Studies show that people who learn multiple languages before about seven years of age can develop native-speaker fluency in all these languages. In these contexts, the heritage language offers little advantage in comprehension and impact compared to other languages in which they have developed fluency from an early age.[5]
in multilingual communities notions about a single “heart language” may no longer apply
But can a heart language provide other advantages? Does it connect people more to their identity? It depends. Identity is complex. People often define their identity in terms of different groups and roles.
When we served in Indonesia, my wife facilitated a weekly English-language gathering for local college students who represented several ethnic groups. Most were fluent in their heritage language. As proud Indonesians, they were also highly fluent in the national language and started learning and using it very early in life. The heritage languages of these students connected uniquely to one part of their identities. The national language connected just as firmly to another. For religious expression, their language preference depended on which identity connected to which religious practice. For example, they may use their heritage language for expressing their traditional religion while Indonesian might be their choice for expressing Christianity.
The conclusion, therefore, is that when evaluating language choice for ministry in multilingual contexts, it is important to avoid making assumptions about the superiority of one language over another. Rather we need to understand how people use the languages in their repertoire, in what contexts, and for what purposes.
Factors Related to Language Choice for Ministry
Choosing which language(s) to use for ministry requires an understanding of the factors that affect language choice. These can include formal language policies, the effects of language choice on unity, the suitability of different languages for religious expression, as well as others.
Official Policies and Preferences
Certain denominations maintain formal policies designating which language(s), and in particular cases, which Bible translations, are acceptable to use in the church. A co-worker based in South Asia shared an example of this with me. He said that a local denomination which was highly invested in working in the regional language, refused to give permission for a new heritage language Bible translation to be used in their churches. They felt that introducing materials in the local languages would complicate their ministry. Not all denominations enforce their language polices as vigorously, and local pastors may have more freedom to choose the languages used in their churches.
The tenure and service length of pastors is another denominational policy which can indirectly affect language choice. Pastors required to regularly rotate between churches or parishes may lack motivation to learn and use the local language. Knowing that their time in one place is limited before being reassigned to another, potentially in a different language group, creates a barrier for investing in local languages.
The language used in formal and informal training for pastors and church leaders can also influence ministry language choice. In many countries, seminaries draw students from many ethnic groups, requiring instruction in an LWC. This means that the pastors’ training, understanding of key terms and biblical concepts, and books and other resources are all in the language of instruction. Even if a pastor wants to integrate local language(s) into the life of the church, developing the skills and resources needed to minister effectively in those language(s) can be a formidable task for a busy pastor. Given the choice between preaching and praying well in the national language or stumbling through a prayer or sermon in a local language, most pastors opt for the easier path.
Governments may also have official policies affecting the languages that can be used in church. However, even where official policies exist, enforcement often differs among local officials. In addition, official government policies can and do change over time – what is acceptable today may not be tomorrow.
Unity versus Ethnic Tension and Division
When my wife and I lived in Papua New Guinea, we noticed that the church in the village where we lived conducted services primarily in Melanesian Pidgin, but they used the heritage language for scripture readings and a few songs. However, when people visited from outside the language group, the services were conducted almost entirely in Pidgin. The church leaders said they did this because that they wanted their guests to feel included.
When a church’s membership draws from several ethnic groups, this same dynamic exists. The LWC provides an important way to connect everyone equally in the service. This becomes even more important when multicultural churches include ethnic groups who have traditionally been in conflict. They may avoid local languages out of concern that using them will foster ethnic tensions and divisions in the church. In situations like this, the national language or an LWC is seen as a unifying language while local languages are viewed as divisive.
Getting everyone to sing from the same hymnal doesn’t necessarily mean inter-ethnic stress disappeared. A commitment to a common language may create the appearance of unity while leaving underlying discord unaddressed. Language choice may not be an effective way for church leaders to address division and inter-ethnic tensions.
Suitability of Heritage Languages
An important factor in selecting language(s) for church ministry is whether local people view their heritage language as suitable for use in church contexts. Some languages in Indonesia, for example, have multiple levels of formality or registers. Typically, they have high, middle, and low registers. Communities commonly regard the high register as the only one suitable for Scripture. Unfortunately, often only older people can still understand this register.
In other language groups, the problem is not with the register but more with their view of their language’s value. Some language groups reject the idea of translating the Bible into their language and of using their language in the church because they view it as inferior and not worthy of use for Christian expression. When this happens, they may not see a translation or Scripture resources in their language as equally authoritative to similar resources in a more respected language.
Finally, people may not see their heritage language as suitable for church simply because they lack awareness. My wife and I attended a small rural church in India on the day they used the heritage language in church for the very first time. One member composed a song in the heritage language, and then another member prayed in the that language.
After the service, one woman commented, “If we had known we could pray and sing in our own language in church, there would be a lot more believers now.” Expanding the range of languages used in church may require nothing more than local leaders encouraging people to use their heritage language(s) and giving them permission to do so.
Demographics and Objectives
Demographics play an important role in what language(s) to use in multilingual contexts. Significant differences exist between language use in rural and urban churches. In comparison to their rural peers, people living in urban contexts often have more advanced education, live amongst greater ethnic diversity, gain greater fluency in the national or regional language(s), and have greater access to technology. These factors contribute to people in urban settings using the national or regional language more frequently than their rural counterparts.
Language use may also vary between age groups. Older people commonly have greater fluency in their heritage language while younger people tend to shift towards the national or regional language(s).
To effectively meet the linguistic needs across this range of demographics, different languages may be needed in different settings to achieve different objectives. An urban church whose leadership wants to be inclusive of people from all ethnic backgrounds usually defaults to an LWC. However, other urban churches that focus only on a single ethnic group may conduct their services solely in that group’s language. They may, however, make an exception and conduct services for youth in an LWC.
Different languages may be needed in different settings to achieve different objectives.
Rural churches may desire to conduct their services in the heritage language, especially in places where people are not highly fluent in the national or regional language(s). But if people from other ethnic groups join their services, they may adjust.
Even in churches where most ministry is conducted in a single language, using other languages may be desirable to achieve specific purposes. Churches may feature music from various ethnic groups represented to celebrate the diversity in the church. They may also conduct small groups in various local languages to accommodate those who are more comfortable speaking in their heritage language. Finally, because people in certain places still view Christianity as a religion of Western foreigners, churches may find that their outreach efforts become more productive when they use heritage languages.
Classifying Types of Multilingualism
Recently, representatives from several Bible translation agencies developed the Multilingualism Assessment Tool[6] for assessing the kind of multilingualism present in a community. The tool provides a way to classify types of multilingualism using these four categories: basic, shifting, shifted, and complex.
Basic multilingualism describes a situation where in addition to their heritage language a community uses one or more other languages. Languages become domain specific. For example, one language is used for trade, while another is used in conversation with friends and family. In basic multilingualism, language use is stable and the heritage language is not in immediate danger of being replaced by another language.
In shifting multilingualism, the heritage language is being replaced in more and more domains, usually by an LWC. Shifts usually occur because increased contact with speakers of other languages requires using an LWC. Although intentional efforts can slow the process, language shift usually indicates that the heritage language will be replaced within a generation or two.
In shifted multilingualism the heritage language has already extensively shifted. Only a few people still speak the heritage language and children no longer learn and use it. In these contexts, people use an LWC in almost all domains.
Complex multilingualism is mainly found in urban settings or other large geographic areas where large numbers of people from a variety of language groups live. They continue to use their heritage language with members of their own language community but use other languages when interacting with people from other language groups. This type of multilingualism is typically sustainable because numerous languages have large clusters of speakers.
Because certain language groups exhibit two or more of these types of multilingualism, determining which type of multilingualism is predominant may be complicated. For example, in one language community speakers who live in urban areas may be categorized as shifted while speakers in rural areas might be categorized as basic or shifting. In one area where I worked in Papua New Guinea, the villages located along a river would have been classified as shifting because of their access to transportation services and their interaction with people from other groups. Villages located farther from the river, however, would have been classified as basic multilingualism.
Conclusion
Language use and multilingualism are complex topics. Research has refined our understanding of the concept of heart language and given us new insights into the factors that contribute to how languages are used in ministry and life. Classifying types of multilingualism provides a framework for more effective evaluation of which language(s) provide the greatest promise both for Bible translation and for the development of resources for more general outreach and discipleship purposes. This, in turn, further clarifies how to reach communities more effectively with the gospel and facilitate the continued spiritual growth in the church.
Kyle Harris (kyle.harris@iscteam.org) and his wife, Kathy, began their service with Pioneer Bible Translators (PBT) in the mid-1980s. They worked as Bible translators among the Nend people of Papua New Guinea, and later Kyle served in various administrative and leadership roles. Currently, Kyle serves as PBT’s international scripture impact coordinator. He and Kathy are based in the US.
NOTES
[1] “New American Community Survey Statistics for Income, Poverty and Health Insurance Available for States and Local Areas,” US Census Bureau, September 14, 2017, https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2017/acs-single-year.html.
[2] Endangered Language Alliance, (2016), Retrieved from http://elalliance.org.
[3] Joshua A. Fishman, “Who Speaks What Language to Whom and When?” in La Linguistique, 1 (1965): 67.
[4] Fishman, “Who Speaks What,” 73.
[5] Kyle Harris, “L1 and L2 Comprehension and Emotional Impact among Early Proficient Bilinguals,” in Language and Identity in a Multilingual, Migrating World, ed. J. S. Quakenbush and G. F. Simons (Dallas, TX: Pike Center for Integrative Scholarship, 2018), 193–211.
[6] The Multilingualism Assessment Tool (MAT) helps determine Scripture needs for language communities. It is designed for local church leaders and will soon be available on the EMDC website, https://emdc.info.
EMQ, Volume 58, Issue 3. Copyright © 2022 by Missio Nexus. All rights reserved. Not to be reproduced or copied in any form without written permission from Missio Nexus. Email: EMQ@MissioNexus.org.
